US investigates National Geographic over ‘corrupt payments’ to Egypt's keeper of antiquities

David Usborne

National Geographic may be facing an unexpected challenge to its reputation as one of the world’s most respected educational and scientific institutions amid reports that it is under investigation in the United States over its ties to a former Egyptian official who for years held the keys to his country’s many popular antiquities.

At issue is whether the Washington-based organisation, which in recent years has rapidly extended its public reach beyond its well-known glossy magazine to a cable television channel and other enterprises, violated strict US laws on payments to officials of foreign governments in contracts starting in 2001 with Dr Zahi Hawass, who, until the overthrow of President Hosni Mubarak, was the government’s sole gatekeeper to all things ancient Egypt.
For a decade, Dr Hawass seemingly played a critical role in giving National Geographic constant access to the antiquities, including the pyramids and Tutankhamun treasures which because of their popularity with the public became a lynchpin of its expansion. Fees for those services, which according to the Vocativ news web site ranged from $80,000 (£50,000) to $200,000 a year, could be interpreted under US law as illegal bribes.
The Justice Department declined to confirm the investigation. “As a matter of long-standing policy, we generally do not confirm nor deny whether a matter is under investigation,” Peter Carr, a spokesman with the Justice Department Criminal Division, told The Independent.
In a separate statement, a spokesperson for the National Geographic, said: “The National Geographic Society has complied with all applicable laws and acted appropriately with respect to its relationship with Dr Zahi Hawass and the government of Egypt.”
Dr Hawass was likewise indignant. “No one can bribe me,” he told Vocativ. “I’m the most famous Egyptologist.”
Dr Hawass, who lost his perch as protector of his country’s ancient treasures after the first Egyptian  uprising and fall of Mubarak, signed successive deals with National Geographic that named him an “explorer-in-residence”. The deal gradually made him a celebrity with armchair archaeology fans in America and wherever National  Geographic TV is shown.
“When I became an ‘explorer’, I signed a contract to write books and make lectures,” he insisted. “Based on the law, if you sign a contract to write books and make lectures, you have to get the government’s approval, and I did!” He added: “It was a contract. It was not a bribe. I gave no single favour to National Geographic.”
Any US investigation will be focused less on any possible wrongdoing by him but rather by National Geographic, a charity that first began publishing its magazine with the familiar yellow borders in 1888, with particular reference to the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act which forbids US  entities from paying bribes to foreign government to gain an unfair competitive advantage.
Companies targeted by the act recently have included WalMart, accused of paying illegal fees to officials in Mexico to speed the approval of building permits for its superstores.
The institution insists nothing was underhand in its dealings with Dr Hawass. “If there were requests made by governmental entities about our activities, we would co-operate fully and transparently,” a spokesperson told Vocativ.

 http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us-investigates-national-geographic-over-corrupt-payments-to-egypts-keeper-of-antiquities-8909454.html

Monday 28 October 2013

 

Oops! Etruscan Warrior Prince Really a Princess

Last month, archaeologists announced a stunning find: a completely sealed tomb cut into the rock in Tuscany, Italy.
The untouched tomb held what looked like the body of an Etruscan prince holding a spear, along with the ashes of his wife. Several news outlets reported on the discovery of the 2,600-year-old warrior prince.
But the grave held one more surprise.
A bone analysis has revealed the warrior prince was actually a princess, as Judith Weingarten, an alumna of the British School at Athens noted on her blog, Zenobia: Empress of the East. (See Photos of the Unsealed Etruscan Tomb)
Etruscan tomb
Historians know relatively little about the Etruscan culture that flourished in what is now Italy until its absorption into the Roman civilization around 400 B.C. Unlike their better-known counterparts, the ancient Greeks and the Romans, the Etruscans left no historical documents, so their graves provide a unique insight into their culture.
The new tomb, unsealed by archaeologists in Tuscany, was found in the Etruscan necropolis of Tarquinia, a UNESCO World Heritage site where more than 6,000 graves have been cut into the rock.
"The underground chamber dates back to the beginning of the sixth century B.C. Inside, there are two funerary beds carved into the rock," Alessandro Mandolesi, the University of Turin archaeologist who excavated the site, wrote in an email

When the team removed the sealed slab blocking the tomb, they saw two large platforms. On one platform lay a skeleton bearing a lance. On another lay a partially incinerated skeleton. The team also found several pieces of jewelry and a bronze-plated box, which may have belonged to a woman, according to the researchers.
"On the inner wall, still hanging from a nail, was an aryballos [a type of flask] oil-painted in the Greek-Corinthian style," Mandolesi said.
Initially, the lance suggested the skeleton on the biggest platform was a male warrior, possibly an Etruscan prince. The jewelry likely belonged to the second body, the warrior prince’s wife.
But bone analysis revealed the prince holding the lance was actually a 35- to 40-year-old woman, whereas the second skeleton belonged to a man.

Given that, what do archaeologists make of the spear?
"The spear, most likely, was placed as a symbol of union between the two deceased," Mandolesi told Viterbo News 24 on Sept. 26.
Weingarten doesn't believe the symbol of unity explanation. Instead, she thinks the spear shows the woman's high status.
Their explanation is "highly unlikely," Weingarten told LiveScience. "She was buried with it next to her, not him."

NEWS: An Ancient Estruscan Home Emerges from a Hillside

Gendered assumptions
The mix-up highlights just how easily both modern and old biases can color the interpretation of ancient graves.

In this instance, the lifestyles of the ancient Greeks and Romans may have skewed the view of the tomb. Whereas Greek women were cloistered away, Etruscan women, according to Greek historian Theopompus, were more carefree, working out, lounging nude, drinking freely, consorting with many men and raising children who did not know their fathers' identities.
Instead of using objects found in a grave to interpret the sites, archaeologists should first rely on bone analysis or other sophisticated techniques before rushing to conclusions, Weingarten said.
"Until very recently, and sadly still in some countries, sex determination is based on grave goods. And that, in turn, is based almost entirely on our preconceptions. A clear illustration is jewelry: We associate jewelry with women, but that is nonsense in much of the ancient world," Weingarten said. "Guys liked bling, too."
This article originally appeared on LiveScience.com. More from LiveScience.com:

 http://news.discovery.com/history/archaeology/etruscan-warrior-prince-really-a-princess-131021.htm
 

Entombed Etruscan Was Expert Embroiderer

Skeletal remains found last month in an untouched Etruscan tomb likely belonged to an aristocratic woman (not a prince, as earlier reported) buried alongside a spear and her sewing needles.
Analysis revealed that a small bronze box found beside the skeleton in Tarquinia contain the needles -- and some thread.
"X-rays showed the perfectly sealed box contains at least five needles, some threads remains and perhaps a sewing reel," Alfonsina Russo, Superintendent archaeologist for Southern Etruria, told Discovery News.
The precious box was found at the feet of the skeleton, along with a large bronze basin and a smaller dish.
According to University of Turin Alessandro Mandolesi, director of the excavation, it was produced by recycling parts of an older artifact, possibly an 8th-7th-century BC shield. It was probably passed down generations until it reached the noble woman.
"This object and its contents identifies the woman as an embroiderer. It is well known the Etruscans were skilled in textile activities. Indeed, several tombs in Tarquinia feature frescoes depicting finely embroidered draperies," Russo added.
A fun-loving and eclectic people, the Etruscans began to flourish around 900 B.C., and dominated much of Italy for five centuries. During the fif

th century B.C., as the Romans grew in power, they began to decline. By 300-100 B.C., their civilization eventually became absorbed into the Roman empire.

Since their puzzling, non-Indo-European language was virtually extinguished (they left no literature to document their society), the Etruscans have long been considered one of antiquity's great enigmas.Much of what we know about them comes from their cemeteries. Only the richly decorated tombs they left behind have provided clues to fully reconstruct their history.
Blocked by a perfectly sealed stone slab for 2,600 years, the small vaulted chamber also contained the partially incinerated remains of another individual.

 http://news.discovery.com/history/archaeology/entombed-etruscan-was-expert-embroiderer-131023.htm

Ancient Magician's Curse Tablet Discovered in Jerusalem

A lead curse tablet, dating back around 1,700 years and likely written by a magician, has been discovered in a collapsed Roman mansion in Jerusalem, archaeologists report.
The mansion, which is being excavated by the Israel Antiquities Authority in the Givati Parking Lot, is located in what is known as the "City of David," an area that holds at least 6,000 years of human occupation. The mansion itself covers at least 2,000 square meters (about half an acre) and contains two large open courtyards adjacent to each other. It was in use between the late third century and A.D. 363, when it was destroyed in a series of earthquakes on May 18 or 19.
The text is written in Greek and, in it a woman named Kyrilla invokes the names of six gods to cast a curse on a man named Iennys, apparently over a legal case. [See Photos of the Ancient Curse Tablet
"I strike and strike down and nail down the tongue, the eyes, the wrath, the ire, the anger, the procrastination, the opposition of Iennys," part of the curse reads in translation. Kyrilla asks the gods to ensure that "he in no way oppose, so that he say or perform nothing adverse to Kyrilla … but rather that Iennys, whom the womb bore, be subject to her…"
To obtain her goal Kyrilla combined elements from four religions, Robert Walter Daniel, of the Institut für Altertumskunde at the University of Cologne, told LiveScience in an email. Of six gods invoked, four of them are Greek (Hermes, Persephone, Pluto and Hecate), one is Babylonian (Ereschigal) and one, Abrasax, is Gnostic, a religion connected to early Christianity. Additionally, the text contains magic words such as "Iaoth" that have a Hebrew/Judaism origin.
A professional magician likely created the curse for Kyrilla, who may have literally used a hammer and nails to perform a magical rite that enhanced the effectiveness of the curse, Daniel said.
"The hammering and nailing is a form of gaining control over the person(s) targeted in magical texts," he wrote in the email.
Kyrilla and her curse-recipient, both probably members of the Roman middle or upper class, were likely in some legal dispute, as the curse tablet bears similarities to others found in Cyprus that are known to have been used in legal cases. Additionally the word "opposition" in this text hints at a legal matter.
Exploring the mansion
The newfound artifacts hint at the wealth the occupants of the mansion would have enjoyed and include a miniature head of a boxer athlete used as a scale-weight and several gems, including one engraved with an image of Cupid holding a torch.


The curse tablet itself was excavated in the northwest part of the mansion. While the second-floor room where the tablet was originally placed has collapsed, the artifacts excavated near the tablet provide hints about what the room may have looked like when in use. [In Photos: Two Black Magic Curse Tablets]
Archaeologists Doron Ben Ami and Yana Tchekhanovets, both with the Israel Antiquities Authority, told LiveScience in an email they discovered the remains of mosaics and frescos that contain geometric and floral motifs near the tablet. They also found carved bone fragments from a box that depict the "Triumph of Dionysus," a Greek god, along with maritime imagery such as seahorses.
The team also uncovered roof tiles in the mansion that contain the stamp of the Roman 10th legion, a unit that, for a time, was stationed in Jerusalem. "This practice is common for all the provinces of the Roman Empire. In peaceful times soldiers were responsible for 'civil engineering': They built roads and aqueducts, produced tiles and bricks, etc. The 10th legion produced so many tiles, that it was enough for many more years of construction activity in the city, long after the legion itself left Jerusalem," Ben Ami and Tchekhanovets said.
The researchers also found female figurines, probably depicting a goddess. They were likely used in a "private cult" whose members included residents of the mansion. These figurines were found at or below floor level and may not have been part of the second-floor room that the curse was placed in.
The researchers do not know the purpose of this second-floor room. However, Iennys appears to have been connected to it to such a degree that the curse tablet was placed there intentionally. "Since the curse is directed against Iennys it might have been hidden in or close to a place that he frequented," Daniel wrote in the email. Perhaps lennys lived or worked in the mansion or a courtroom was located near the second floor room, Daniel said.
The discovery was detailed recently in the journal Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik.


The curse tablet itself was excavated in the northwest part of the mansion. While the second-floor room where the tablet was originally placed has collapsed, the artifacts excavated near the tablet provide hints about what the room may have looked like when in use. [In Photos: Two Black Magic Curse Tablets]
Archaeologists Doron Ben Ami and Yana Tchekhanovets, both with the Israel Antiquities Authority, told LiveScience in an email they discovered the remains of mosaics and frescos that contain geometric and floral motifs near the tablet. They also found carved bone fragments from a box that depict the "Triumph of Dionysus," a Greek god, along with maritime imagery such as seahorses.
The team also uncovered roof tiles in the mansion that contain the stamp of the Roman 10th legion, a unit that, for a time, was stationed in Jerusalem. "This practice is common for all the provinces of the Roman Empire. In peaceful times soldiers were responsible for 'civil engineering': They built roads and aqueducts, produced tiles and bricks, etc. The 10th legion produced so many tiles, that it was enough for many more years of construction activity in the city, long after the legion itself left Jerusalem," Ben Ami and Tchekhanovets said.
The researchers also found female figurines, probably depicting a goddess. They were likely used in a "private cult" whose members included residents of the mansion. These figurines were found at or below floor level and may not have been part of the second-floor room that the curse was placed in.
The researchers do not know the purpose of this second-floor room. However, Iennys appears to have been connected to it to such a degree that the curse tablet was placed there intentionally. "Since the curse is directed against Iennys it might have been hidden in or close to a place that he frequented," Daniel wrote in the email. Perhaps lennys lived or worked in the mansion or a courtroom was located near the second floor room, Daniel said.
The discovery was detailed recently in the journal Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik.
www.livescience.com/40638-ancient-curse-tablet-discovered-in-jerusalem.html

The Ancient Theatre of Sparta in Way of Restoration

It stands for its size, quality and the luxury of its construction. The ancient theatre of Sparta, built around 30-20 B.C., is located north of the contemporary city of Sparta, and remains a distinguished monument to this day, despite the ravages of time and past adventures, such as when its auditorium was destroyed to make Byzantine houses and shops.

In ancient times, the theatre used to deeply impress the visitors. For example, the Greek traveler and geographer of the 2nd century AD Pausanias described it with the following words: “this theatre made of white stone is sight worthy.” Its size was also impressive as it was one of the largest ancient theatres, holding a capacity of 16,000 spectators, following the tradition of the earlier Peloponnesian theaters of Epidaurus and Megalopolis.

The visible construction today dates back to the Roman times, with many elements of later times until the end of the 4th century A.D. One of its distinguishing features, is that it consisted of a mobile stage, as the theatre also used to host several events. The stage was kept in a special “stage-case” under the hangar that was built at the west lane. In addition, one of the remarkable elements of the monument is the quality and luxury of construction, which is reflected by the local white marble used in its building.

Since it is considered to be of immense importance, the recent recommendation of the Central Archaeological Council, gave the green light for the study of its rehabilitation.

The study focuses mainly on the damage that the stone elements of the theater have suffered (those made of marble and limestone) from erosion, the loss of material and the fractures caused by the growing of plants, the engravings and graffiti, while relevant damage has also occurred at the masonry of the monument. The road is now open for the correct documentation of the situation, of the theatre parts, and also for the cleaning off of all deposits, such as vegetation and microorganisms, or those brought by human hands such as graffiti.greece.greekreporter.com/2013/10/22/the-ancient-theatre-of-sparta-in-way-of-restoration/#lightbox/0/

Ancient Egyptian secret tomb uncovered

Excavations at Abusir Archaeological Cemetery at Giza have revealed the tomb of Shepseskaf ‘ankh, Head of the Physicians of Upper and Lower Egypt who dates to the Fifth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom of Egypt.
The physician's final resting place is "huge" for its time, vice head of the Ancient Egyptian Sector Ali ALasfar described. The limestone tomb is approximately 69 by 45 feet long and 13 feet high.
A large false door inside the chapel where the tomb was found carries the names and titles of the owner.
"Priest of Khnum" and "Priest of Magic," in addition to other titles are written on the eastern part of the tomb and show how the deceased physician was one of the most important royal physicians in Ancient Egypt.
This is the third tomb belonging to a physician to be discovered in Abusir Cemetery.

 foxnews.com/science/2013/10/22/ancient-egyptian-secret-tomb-uncovered/

UW archaeologists have discovered legion barracks in Bulgaria

The barracks occupied by the 8th Roman legion of Augustus in the middle of the 1st century AD have been discovered by a team of researchers from the Antiquity of Southeastern Europe Research Centre, University of Warsaw, during the excavation in Novae near Svishtov, Bulgaria.

"The structure consisted of a series of segments of equal sizes. The segments consisted of one big and one small room, the dimensions of which underwent modifications in the subsequent phases of the settlement. The barrack was about 16 meters wide and 42 meters long" - explained Prof. Piotr Dyczek , head of the expedition.

The remains indicate that the support structure were large wooden poles, while smaller dowels sustained braid covered with soil. In the last phase, the exterior walls were covered with white plaster. The system of small dowels inside large rooms suggests, according to the researchers, that there could be bunk beds in the corners. There were wooden shelves in the vestibules.

Inside, archaeologists found volute oil lamps, glass vessels - bottles and wine cups. Part of the vessels are hand-made local vessels, so-called thracian urns with decoration in the form of imprinted rope. Archaeologists also discovered fragments of bronze vessels and other objects: buckles, pieces of armour, chandelier chains, folding bronze table base in the shape of a panther paw.

" One noteworthy group of objects are surgical instruments made of bronze. We could have found a legion doctor’s quarters" - added Prof. Dyczek.

For scientists, the barrack layout is a mystery. According to written sources, the first cohort should have a mirrored number of legionaries. This should be reflected in the architectural development. According to Prof. Dyczek, the latest discoveries in Novae are the first that could support the description of the written sour

ce, as that ancient record has not been confirm by any previous excavations.

"In addition, the dimensions of the larger rooms in the barracks we found, for Roman conditions and compared to ancient records, are very large. Formally, a sleeping room should be about 3.0 by 3.0 m, while in the case of our structure it is 3 by 4.5 m. This may indicate that the legionaries of the special unit were afforded more comfort" - concluded Prof. Dyczek.

This year's research season took place in August and September.

PAP - Science and Scholarship in Poland
 http://www.naukawpolsce.pap.pl/en/news/news,397434,uw-archaeologists-have-discovered-legion-barracks-in-bulgaria.html

In Bolivia, Archeologists Find 1,500-Year-Old Bones And Skulls In Lake Titicaca

  Agence France Presse  |

Gold and silver pieces as well as bones and pottery from 1,500 years ago were discovered in Lake Titicaca by underwater archaeologists, a researcher said Tuesday.
"We found 2,000 objects and fragments," Christophe Delaere, the Belgian co-director of the Huinaimarca Project that unearthed the items, said at a ceremony in La Paz.
President Evo Morales, Bolivia's minister of culture and diplomats from Belgium were also in attendance.
The expedition began two months ago on the Bolivian side of the lake, which is shared with Peru. Underwater explorations turned up objects from different eras, both Inca era and pre-Inca (1438-1533).
The project unearthed 31 gold fragments, mainly around the Isla del Sol, where legend holds that mythical founders of the Incan empire emerged from the lake's waters.


Underwater excavations were carried out in other parts of the lake where objects from different dates were found.
"There are ceramics and urns from more than 500 to 800 years ago," Delaere said.
Elsewhere, 1,500-year-old objects such as stone vessels, incense containers and figures of animals like pumas were found.

Tales about the lake containing underwater citadels and wealth supposedly stashed by indigenous Quechua and Aymara people from Spanish conquistadores have existed for centuries in Bolivia.
In the late 1960s French explorer Jacques-Yves Cousteau conducted several expeditions in Lake Titicaca, finding signs of a civilization.
Morales stressed that Bolivia, South America's poorest nation, is keen to recover its national patrimony on display in countries in Europe and the United States

Discovery of a 2,700-year-old portico in Greece

A 2,700-year-old portico was discovered this summer on the site of the ancient city of Argilos in northern Greece, following an archaeological excavation led by Jacques Perreault, Professor at the University of Montreal's Centre of Classical Studies and Zisis Bonias, an archaeologist with the Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports.
In ancient Greece, the portico—stoa in Greek—was a long, open structure that often housed shops and delineated public squares from the city—the agora.
"Porticos are well known from the Hellenistic period, from the 3rd to 1st century BC, but earlier examples are extremely rare. The one from Argilos is the oldest example to date from northern Greece and is truly unique," said Jacques Perreault, who is a specialist of the Greek Archaic period (7th and 6th centuries BC.)
Located on the edge of the Aegean Sea, the ancient city of Argilos was the first Greek colony established in this area around the great Strymon River. At its peak in the 5th century BC, Argilos was one of the richest cities in the region.
Since 1992, Professor Perreault and Dr Bonias have excavated the hill covering Argilos and the University of Montreal has acquired some of the private land sitting on it. Acquisitions were made on behalf of the Greek government, but the excavators retain the rights over scientific research. The remains of the Argilos portico are located on one of these sites, at the northern end of what was the city's commercial district, 50 metres from the port area at the time

of the inhabitants' entrepreneurship
Archaelogical digs in 2013 unearthed a roughly 40-metre length of the portico. The open area once contained seven rooms, five of which have been excavated, each measuring 5 metres wide and 7.5 metres deep, with a 2.5-metre high back wall.
Since Argilos was prosperous, it is plausible that the portico was commissioned and built by the city. If this were the case, an architect would have overseen the construction and architectural integrity of the structure; there would have been no differences in the size of the stones used, and all the rooms would have been identical.
However, examination of the remains indicates just the contrary.
"The construction techniques and the stones used are different for one room to another, hinting that several masons were used for each room," Perreault said. "This indicates that the shop owners themselves were probably responsible for building the rooms, that 'private enterprise' and not the city was the source of this stoa."

A prosperous city falls into oblivion
In the Iron Age, northern Greece was an Eldorado. The valley of the Strymon River, whose mouth is located less than three kilometres from Argilos, overflowed with gold and silver mines.
With its ports and nearby mines, Argilos was a strategic location for trade in precious metals.
But its prosperity declined rapidly from the mid-5th century BC, when the Athenians founded the nearby city of Amphipolis. In 357 BC, Philip II conquered the whole region and deported the inhabitants from Argilos to Amphipolis, the new seat of the king of Macedonia.
Thus deserted, Argilos remained frozen in time, which is why it is possible today to discover its buildings and the many vestiges of human activity that characterized them.
A popular practicum location

Since it has been under the responsibility of Perreault and Bonias, the Argilos site has provided a practicum location for some 450 University of Montreal students under their supervision.
"Each year, 20 to 30 students spend four to six weeks at Argilos to learn excavation techniques and analysis of archaeological material, and to visit various archaeological sites in northern Greece," says Perreault.
And the experience is far from over. The portico itself has not yet been fully excavated, and according to the results of a three-metre deep geophysical survey, the structure appears to continue, and more discoveries thus await the archaeologists.

###

Notes
This document is a translation from a text originally published in French. The University of Montreal is officially known as Université de Montréal.

 http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2013-10/uom-doa100913.php

Hallan una estatua de Ramsés II con más de 3.000 años de antigüedad en Egipto

La figura, que data de la XIX dinastía, mide 1,95 metros de largo por 1,60 de ancho y es de granito rojo
Un equipo de arqueólogos, compuesto por egipcios y alemanes, ha descubierto una estatua de Ramsés II, con más de 3.000 años de antigüedad, en el templo de la diosa Bastet, en la provincia de Sharqiya, en el norte de Egipto. La figura, que data de la XIX dinastía (entre el 1.295 y el 1.186 a.C.), mide 1,95 metros de largo por 1,60 de ancho y es de granito rojo, ha informado hoy el ministro egipcio de Antigüedades, Mohamed Ibrahim, en un comunicado.
En su parte de atrás, la figura tiene inscripciones jeroglíficas con el nombre de Ramsés II, que es uno de los faraones del Imperio Nuevo, perteneciente a la XIX dinastía, y de varios dioses. La pieza fue hallada durante excavaciones al este del Gran Templo, como también se conoce el santuario de Bastet, que se representaba con forma de gato y era protectora del hogar, a 85 kilómetros al noreste de El Cairo.
El templo se encuentra en la colina de Bubastis, que, según Ibrahim, es uno de los yacimientos más antiguos del país, ya que en él se han descubierto artefactos que

se remontan a la dinastía IV (2.630-2.500 a.C.).
El ministro explicó que el lugar fue en la antigüedad un centro religioso importante, que, por su ubicación, fue testigo de varias invasiones procedentes del este.
Aparte de la estatua de Ramsés, los arqueólogos también han encontrado la figura de un alto funcionario del Estado durante la dinastía XIX, hecha de arenisca y con unas dimensiones de 35 por 25 centímetros. En su superficie está escrito que fue un regalo para la diosa Bastet.
Las autoridades egipcias creen que estos últimos descubrimientos, junto a otros anteriores en la zona, ofrecen nuevas pistas para encontrar otro templo en esa área de la época del Imperio Nuevo.

 http://cultura.elpais.com/cultura/2013/10/03/actualidad/1380801098_427691.html

Exposición "animales sagrados egipcios"

Más de 10.000 personas ya han visitado la exposición ‘animales sagrados egipcios’, resultado de una investigación pionera en europa

 

 

diego rodríguez 29/09/2013

Figura de cocodrilo en piedra volcánica. Imperio Nuevo (1552-1089 a.C).

El palacio de Botines acoge hasta finales de octubre la exposición Animales sagrados egipcios, organizada por Caja España-Duero y el Instituto Bíblico y Oriental de León, por la que ya han pasado más de 10.000 personas y en la que pueden observarse once momias de gatos, ibis, halcones y hasta peces.
La exposición nace fruto de la investigacion llevada a cabo entre 2009 y 2013 en el Centro de Investigacion de Medicina Aplicada de la universidad de Navarra sobre momias de animales egipcios. «La universidad nos ofreció la posibilidad de realizar estudios internos, que anteriormente solo se habían hecho sobre momias humanas» explica María Luz Mangado, coordinadora de la exposición. «Esto nos ha permitido aprender sobre religión, momificación y sobre los conocimientos de anatomía existentes en el antiguo Egipto».
Tradicionalmente, las momias de animales habían sido expuestas como meras curiosidades en los museos, sin darles más importancia que la anecdótica. Mientras que las momias humanas ya fueron analizadas con rayos X a finales del siglo XIX, las animales quedaron aparcadas, pero a partir de la década de los noventa esto empezó a cambiar gracias al estudio de textos y al legado arqueológico de los templos. El equipo de Mangado sometió a los cadáveres momificados a un TAC (Tomografía Axial Computerizada), la primera vez que se ha realizado un estudio de este calado en momias de animales. «La tecnología que se emplea es relativamente joven, y mediante técnicas no invasivas permite obtener mucha información sin tocar siquiera la momia. Es una tecnología puntera que en Europa solo se puede hacer en tres sitios, y tenemos la suerte de que la Universidad de Navarra sea uno de ellos».
La momificación de animales arrancó en Egipto varios siglos más tarde que la humana. Inicialmente era mucho más rara y selectiva, pero a partir del 800 a.C. proliferó gracias a la popularización de ofrendar momias de animales a los dioses en los templos. Esta práctica, que alcanzó su punto álgido en la época ptolemaica, era tan común que en el siglo XIX, cuando las ciudades egipcias empezaron a extenderse más allá de sus cascos históricos, se encontraban momias por todas partes —lo que propició que fueran utilizadas como combustible para trenes o que se exportaran masivamente a Europa como abono para los campos—.
«El culto a los animales ha sido una práctica común en muchas culturas, pero en Egipto se mantuvo paralelamente al desarrollo de la civilización, y la mezcla de un sistema tan primitivo con creencias tan elevadas les parecía tan extraña a los griegos como nos parece a nosotros», escribía el reputado egiptólogo Flinders Petrie hace más de cien años. Estos animales representaban conceptos más trascendentes que su misma figura; fueron sus características esenciales las que los acercaron y unieron al hombre. «Eran entendidos como manifestación de arquetipos religiosos que hacían referencia a fuerzas muy sutiles de la naturaleza», explica el egiptólogo leonés Nacho Ares, que hace años estudió algunos de los halcones que se exponen ahora en Botines.
A lo largo de miles de años de mitología egipcia, los animales no cambian, compartiendo la permanencia fundamental del universo y por ello mismo su elemento divino. El animal, como arquetipo, representa las capas profundas de lo inconsciente y del instinto, los principios y las fuerzas cósmicas, materiales y espirituales.
Los egipcios adoraron a los animales en todos los períodos de su historia, con mayores o menores grados de intensidad, siendo su culto parte integral de la religión egipcia. El pueblo no tenía derecho a participar en el culto a los grandes dioses, pero sí podía visitar y ofrendar al animal sagrado, representante del dios en la tierra, que solía vivir en un establo o estanque especial junto al templo. Se le alimentaba según sus preferencias y se le proveía de la compañía necesaria, de su misma especie y del sexo contrario. Los especímenes seleccionados por sus marcas especiales vivían felizmente hasta su muerte, tras la cual eran momificados y enterrados con todos los honores.
En los inicios de la historia egipcia sólo algunos animales con características especiales fueron considerados sagrados, como reminiscencia del animal sagrado de cada localidad en la prehistoria. En el Imperio Nuevo, el culto a un animal específico se establece plenamente, pero es a partir del Tercer Período Intermedio cuando los animales empiezan a ser venerados por sí mismos (especialmente el toro, el cocodrilo y el gato). Con las invasiones asiria y persa el pueblo perdió la fe en los dioses lejanos que lo habían abandonado y volvió los ojos a los de carne y hueso, sus animales sagrados. Nacho Ares cree que esta popularización se debió a una crisis de pensamiento y a una «democratización» de la religión debido a la influencia helenística desde el siglo IV a.C. «La antigua religión egipcia era terriblemente complicada. Desde Alejandro Magno se va volviendo más sencilla y se sintetizan en unas pocas frases los grandes textos religiosos», explica Ares.
Había cuatro motivos para momificar un animal: para servir de alimento al difunto en su viaje a la eternidad, caso en el que se momificaban partes concretas y se enterraban junto al fallecido; mascotas especialmente queridas, que también eran mayoritariamente enterrados junto a su dueño; animales considerados sagrados; y, por último, los depositados como ofrenda a una divinidad o deidad determinada.
Este último caso se popularizó en la época tardía a tal nivel que se convirtió en una importante actividad económica que daba trabajo a cientos de embalsamadores y cuidadores de cementerios. Dado el número de momias animales encontradas, además de todas las que se sabe que fueron destruidas, Mangado cree que «tuvo que ser un motor económico extraordinario». Incluso se han descubierto casos de falsificaciones, en los que el peregrino pagaba una ofrenda y recibía una momia vacía con las telas moldeadas según la forma del animal. «En el momento en el que la demanda supera a la oferta surgen las falsificaciones, algo que se puede ver muy bien en la exposición», opina Ares.
Los expertos creían que la momificación animal se realizaba con mucho menos cuidado que la humana, pero los últimos descubrimientos han demostrado lo contrario. «Lo hacían con mucho cuidado y se preocupaban por estudiar detalladamente la anatomía de los animales», afirma Mangado. Además, la investigación ha permitido aprender más sobre las diferentes técnicas de embalsamamiento, que variaban según la época, el rango y características anatómicas del animal o de la escuela de momificadores que la realizara. «La calidad de la momificación dependía del tipo de animal. En los sagrados era muy sofisticada, y las de algunas mascotas también tienen una calidad extrema. Por el contrario, los procesos casi industriales de los animales criados para ser ofrenda son mucho más básicos», añade Ares.
Sin embargo, aún se desconocen muchos detalles sobre las técnicas de embalsamamiento. En las momias de algunos gatos las extremidades superiores están cruzadas, mientras que en otras están en posición normal. En el estómago de algunos ibis se han encontrado bolsas de conchas. Aunque los expertos creen muy probable que se deba a creencias religiosas, todavía no tienen claro lo que significa. «Necesitamos más estudios complementarios y comparativos», dice Mangado.
El antiguo Egipto sigue aportando más misterios que certezas, algunos de los cuales pueden admirarse en el sótano de Botines hasta el 20 de octubre.


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